Arrow tutorial: Difference between revisions

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(The example I added may not be helpful; removed it.)
(Various formatting changes)
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[[Category:Tutorials]]
{| border=0 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0
[[Category:Arrow]]
|<haskell>
<haskell>
 
> {-# LANGUAGE Arrows #-}
> {-# LANGUAGE Arrows #-}
> module ArrowFun where
> module ArrowFun where
Line 8: Line 6:
> import Control.Category
> import Control.Category
> import Prelude hiding (id,(.))
> import Prelude hiding (id,(.))
</haskell>
</haskell>
|}


== The Arrow ==
== The <code>Arrow</code> class ==
Arrow a b c represents a process that takes as input something of
A value of type <code>(Arrow a) => a b c</code> (commonly referred to as just an <i>arrow</i>) represents a process that takes as input a value of type <code>b</code> and outputs a value of type <code>c</code>.
type b and outputs something of type c.


Arr builds an arrow out of a function.  This function is
The class includes the following methods:
arrow-specific.  Its signature is


<haskell>
* <code>arr</code> builds an arrow value out of a function:


:<haskell>
arr :: (Arrow a) => (b -> c) -> a b c
arr :: (Arrow a) => (b -> c) -> a b c
</haskell>
</haskell>


Arrow composition is achieved with (>>>).  This takes two arrows
* <code>(>>>)</code> composes two arrow values to form a new one by "chaining" them them together, one after another:
and chains them together, one after another.  It is also arrow-
specific.  Its signature is:
 
<haskell>


:<haskell>
(>>>) :: (Arrow a) => a b c -> a c d -> a b d
(>>>) :: (Arrow a) => a b c -> a c d -> a b d
</haskell>
</haskell>


First and second make a new arrow out of an existing arrow.  They
* <code>first</code> and <code>second</code> make a new arrow value out of an existing one.  They perform a transformation (given by their argument) on either the first or the second item of a pair:
perform a transformation (given by their argument) on either
the first or the second item of a pair.  These definitions are
arrow-specific.  Their signatures are:


<haskell>
:<haskell>
 
first :: (Arrow a) => a b c -> a (b, d) (c, d)
first :: (Arrow a) => a b c -> a (b, d) (c, d)
second :: (Arrow a) => a b c -> a (d, b) (d, c)
second :: (Arrow a) => a b c -> a (d, b) (d, c)
</haskell>
</haskell>


First and second may seem pretty strange at first, but they'll make sense  
:<code>first</code> and <code>second</code> may seem pretty strange at first, but they'll make sense in a few minutes.
in a few minutes.
 
That's it for the arrow-specific definitions.
 
== A Simple Arrow ==
Let's define a really simple arrow as an example.  Our simple arrow is
just a function mapping an input to an output.  We don't really need
arrows for something this simple, but we could use something this
simple to explain arrows.


<haskell>
== A simple arrow type ==
Let's define a really simple arrow type as an example, based on a function mapping an input to an output: 


:<haskell>
> newtype SimpleFunc a b = SimpleFunc {
> newtype SimpleFunc a b = SimpleFunc {
>    runF :: (a -> b)
>    runF :: (a -> b)
Line 73: Line 53:
>    (SimpleFunc g) . (SimpleFunc f) = SimpleFunc (g . f)
>    (SimpleFunc g) . (SimpleFunc f) = SimpleFunc (g . f)
>    id = arr id
>    id = arr id
</haskell>
</haskell>


== Some Arrow Operations ==
== Some other arrow operations ==
Now lets define some operations that are generic to all arrows.
Now let's define some operations that are generic to all arrow types:


Split is an arrow that splits a single value into a pair of duplicate
* <code>split</code> is an arrow value that splits a single value into a pair of duplicate values:
values:
 
<haskell>


:<haskell>
> split :: (Arrow a) => a b (b, b)
> split :: (Arrow a) => a b (b, b)
> split = arr (\x -> (x,x))
> split = arr (\x -> (x,x))
</haskell>
</haskell>


Unsplit is an arrow that takes a pair of values and combines them
* <code>unsplit</code> is an arrow value that takes a pair of values and combines them to return a single value:
to return a single value:
 
<haskell>


:<haskell>
> unsplit :: (Arrow a) => (b -> c -> d) -> a (b, c) d
> unsplit :: (Arrow a) => (b -> c -> d) -> a (b, c) d
> unsplit = arr . uncurry       
> unsplit = arr . uncurry       
>           -- arr (\op (x,y) -> x `op` y)
>     -- = \op -> arr (\(x,y) -> x `op` y)
 
</haskell>
</haskell>


(***) combines two arrows into a new arrow by running the two arrows
* <code>(***)</code> combines two arrow values by running them on a pair (the first arrow value on the first component of the pair; the second arrow value on the second component of the pair):
on a pair of values (one arrow on the first item of the pair and one arrow on the  
second item of the pair).
 
<haskell>


:<haskell>
f *** g = first f >>> second g
f *** g = first f >>> second g
</haskell>
</haskell>


(&&&) combines two arrows into a new arrow by running the two arrows on
* <code>(&&&)</code> combines two arrow values by running them with the same input:
the same value:
 
<haskell>


:<haskell>
f &&& g = split >>> first f >>> second g
f &&& g = split >>> first f >>> second g
     -- = split >>> f *** g
     -- = split >>> f *** g
</haskell>
</haskell>


LiftA2 makes a new arrow that combines the output from two arrows using  
* <code>liftA2</code> makes a new arrow value that combines the output from two other arrow values using a binary operation.  It works by splitting a value and operating on both halves and then combining the result:
a binary operation.  It works by splitting a value and operating on  
both halfs and then combining the result:
 
<haskell>


:<haskell>
> liftA2 :: (Arrow a) => (b -> c -> d) -> a e b -> a e c -> a e d
> liftA2 :: (Arrow a) => (b -> c -> d) -> a e b -> a e c -> a e d
> liftA2 op f g = split >>> first f >>> second g >>> unsplit op
> liftA2 op f g = split >>> first f >>> second g >>> unsplit op
>            -- = f &&& g >>> unsplit op
>            -- = f &&& g >>> unsplit op
</haskell>


</haskell>
== An example ==
Now let's build something using our simple arrow definition and some of the tools we've just created.  We start with two simple arrow values, <code>f</code> and <code>g</code>:


* <code>f</code> halves its input:


== An Example ==
:<haskell>
Now let's build something using our simple arrow definition and
> f :: SimpleFunc Int Int
some of the tools we just created.  We start with two simple
> f = arr (`div` 2)
arrows, f and g.  F halves its input and g triples its input and
</haskell>
adds one:


<haskell>
* and <code>g</code> triples its input and adds one:


> f, g :: SimpleFunc Int Int
:<haskell>
> f = arr (`div` 2)
> g :: SimpleFunc Int Int
> g = arr (\x -> x*3 + 1)
> g = arr (\x -> x*3 + 1)
</haskell>
</haskell>


We can combine these together using liftA2:
We can combine these together using <code>liftA2</code>:
 
<haskell>


:<haskell>
> h :: SimpleFunc Int Int
> h :: SimpleFunc Int Int
> h = liftA2 (+) f g
> h = liftA2 (+) f g
Line 156: Line 119:
> hOutput :: Int
> hOutput :: Int
> hOutput = runF h 8
> hOutput = runF h 8
</haskell>
</haskell>


What is h?  How does it work?   
What is <code>h</code>?  How does it work?   
The process defined by h is (split >>> first f >>> second g >>> unsplit (+)).
Lets work through an application of h to some value, 8:


    8 -> (8, 8)            split
The process defined by <code>h</code> is <code>split >>> first f >>> second g >>> unsplit (+)</code>. Let's work through an application of <code>h</code> to the value <code>8</code>:
    (8, 8) -> (4, 8)        first f (x `div` 2 of the first element)
    (4, 8) -> (4, 25)      second g (3*x + 1 of the second element)
    (4, 25) -> 29          applies (+) to tuple elements.


              +------> f ---------+
:{|
              |                   v
|<code>8</code>
    8 ---> (split)         (unsplit (+)) ----> 29
|→
              |                  ^
|<code>(8, 8)</code>
              +------> g ---------+
|<code>split</code>
|-
|<code>(8, 8)</code>
|→
|<code>(4, 8)</code>
|<code>first f</code> ⇔ <code>x `div` 2</code>, where <code>x</code> is the first component of the pair
|-
|<code>(4, 8)</code>
|→
|<code>(4, 25)</code>
|<code>second g</code> ⇔ <code>3*y + 1</code>, where <code>y</code> is the second component of the pair
|-
|<code>(4, 25)</code>
|→
|<code>29</code>
|apply <code>(+)</code> to the components of the pair
|}
:::{|
|
              f
            ↗  ↘
  8 (split)     (unsplit (+)) 29
            ↘  ↗
              g  
|}


so we see that h is a new arrow that when applied to 8, applies 8 to f  
We can see that <code>h</code> is a new arrow value that, when applied to <code>8</code>, will apply both <code>f</code> and <code>g</code> to <code>8</code>, then adds their results.
and applies 8 to g and adds the results.


A lot of juggling occurred to get the plumbing right since
A lot of juggling occurred to get the plumbing right since <code>h</code> wasn't defined as a linear combination of arrow values.  GHC has a syntactic notation that simplifies this in a similar way to how
h wasn't defined as a linear combination of arrows.  GHC has
<code>do</code>-notation simplifies monadic computations. The <code>h</code> function can then be defined as:
a do-notation that simplifies this in a similar way to how
do-notation simplifies monadic computation. The h function
can be defined as:
 
<haskell>


:<haskell>
> h' :: SimpleFunc Int Int
> h' :: SimpleFunc Int Int
> h' = proc x -> do
> h' = proc x -> do
Line 193: Line 169:
> hOutput' :: Int
> hOutput' :: Int
> hOutput' = runF h' 8
> hOutput' = runF h' 8
</haskell>
</haskell>


== Kleisli Arrows ==
== <code>Kleisli</code> arrow values ==
Let's move on to something a little fancier now: Kleisli arrows.   
Let's move on to something a little fancier now: Kleisli arrows.   
A Kleisli arrow (Kleisli m a b) is the arrow (a -> m b) for all
monads.  It's defined in Control.Arrows similarly to our SimpleFunc:


<haskell>
A Kleisli arrow type (<code>Kleisli m a b</code>) corresponds to the type <code>(a -> m b)</code>, where <code>m</code> is a monadic type.  It's defined in <code>Control.Arrows</code> similarly to our <code>SimpleFunc</code>:


:<haskell>
newtype Kleisli m a b = Kleisli {
newtype Kleisli m a b = Kleisli {
   runKleisli :: (a -> m b)  
   runKleisli :: (a -> m b)  
}
}
</haskell>
</haskell>


It comes complete with its own definitions for arr, first, second and
It comes complete with its own definitions for <code>arr</code>, <code>(>>>)</code>, <code>first</code>, and <code>second</code>. This means that all multi-value functions (i.e of type <code>a -> [b]</code>) are already defined as Kleisli arrows (because the list type <code>[]</code> is monadic)! <code>(>>>)</code> performs composition, keeping track of all the multiple results. <code>split</code>, <code>(&&&)</code> and <code>(***)</code> are all defined as before. For example:
(>>>). This means that all multi-value functions (a -> [b]) are already  
defined as Kleisli arrows (because [] is a monad)! (>>>) performs
composition, keeping track of all the multiple results. Split, (&&&)
and (***) are all defined as before. So for example:
 
<haskell>


:<haskell>
> plusminus, double, h2 :: Kleisli [] Int Int
> plusminus, double, h2 :: Kleisli [] Int Int
> plusminus = Kleisli (\x -> [x, -x])
> plusminus = Kleisli (\x -> [x, -x])
Line 224: Line 192:
> h2Output :: [Int]
> h2Output :: [Int]
> h2Output = runKleisli h2 8
> h2Output = runKleisli h2 8
</haskell>
</haskell>


== A Teaser ==
== A Teaser ==
Finally, here is a little teaser. There is an arrow function called
Finally, here is a little teaser. There is an arrow function called <code>returnA</code> which returns an identity arrow. There is an <code>ArrowPlus</code> class that includes a <code>zeroArrow</code> (which for the list type is an arrow value that always returns the empty list) and a <code>(<+>)</code> operator (which takes the results from two arrow values and concatenates them). We can build up some pretty interesting string transformations (multi-valued functions of type <code>String -> [String]</code>) using Kleisli arrow values:
returnA which returns an identity arrow. There is an ArrowPlus class  
that includes a zeroArrow (which for the list monad is an arrow that  
always returns the empty list) and a <+> operator (which takes the  
results from two arrows and concatenates them). We can build up  
some pretty interesting string transformations (the multi-valued
function String -> [String]) using Kleisli arrows:
 
<haskell>


:<haskell>
> main :: IO ()
> main :: IO ()
> main = do
> main = do
Line 249: Line 209:
>        xs = ["test", "foobar"] >>= (runKleisli xform)
>        xs = ["test", "foobar"] >>= (runKleisli xform)
>    mapM_ putStrLn xs
>    mapM_ putStrLn xs
</haskell>
</haskell>


Line 255: Line 214:
     f >>> g
     f >>> g


is multi-valued composition (g . f), and
is a multi-valued composition <code>(g . f)</code>, and
    (withId f) >>> (withId g) =
:{|
    (returnA <+> f) >>> (returnA <+> g) =
|
    ((arr id) <+> f) >>> ((arr id) <+> g)
|<code>(withId f) >>> (withId g)</code>
|-
|=
|<code>(returnA <+> f) >>> (returnA <+> g)</code>
|-
|=
|<code>((arr id) <+> f) >>> ((arr id) <+> g)</code>
|}


which, when applied to an input x, returns all values:
which, when applied to an input <code>x</code>, returns all values:
    ((id . id) x) ++ ((id . f) x) ++ ((id . g) x) ++ ((g . f) x) =
:{|
    x ++ (f x) ++ (g x) ++ ((g . f) x)
|
|<code>((id . id) x) ++ ((id . f) x) ++ ((id . g) x) ++ ((g . f) x)</code>
|-
| =
|<code>x ++ (f x) ++ (g x) ++ ((g . f) x)</code>
|}


which are all permutations of using arrows f and g.
which are all permutations of using the arrow values <code>f</code> and <code>g</code>.


== Tutorial Meta ==
== Tutorial Meta ==
The wiki file source is literate Haskell. Save the source in a file called ArrowFun.lhs to compile it (or run in GHCi).
The wiki file source is literate Haskell. Save the source in a file called <code>ArrowFun.lhs</code> to compile it (or run in GHCi).


The code is adapted to GHC 6.10.1; use [http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/?title=Arrow_tutorial&oldid=15443] for older versions of GHC and other Haskell implementations.
The code is adapted to GHC 6.10.1; use [http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/?title=Arrow_tutorial&oldid=15443] for older versions of GHC and other Haskell implementations.


* Original version - Nov 19, 2006, Tim Newsham.
* Original version - Nov 19, 2006, Tim Newsham.
\
 
[[Category:Tutorials]]
[[Category:Arrow]]

Revision as of 00:00, 17 June 2021

> {-# LANGUAGE Arrows #-}
> module ArrowFun where
> import Control.Arrow
> import Control.Category
> import Prelude hiding (id,(.))

The Arrow class

A value of type (Arrow a) => a b c (commonly referred to as just an arrow) represents a process that takes as input a value of type b and outputs a value of type c.

The class includes the following methods:

  • arr builds an arrow value out of a function:
arr :: (Arrow a) => (b -> c) -> a b c
  • (>>>) composes two arrow values to form a new one by "chaining" them them together, one after another:
(>>>) :: (Arrow a) => a b c -> a c d -> a b d
  • first and second make a new arrow value out of an existing one. They perform a transformation (given by their argument) on either the first or the second item of a pair:
first  :: (Arrow a) => a b c -> a (b, d) (c, d)
second :: (Arrow a) => a b c -> a (d, b) (d, c)
first and second may seem pretty strange at first, but they'll make sense in a few minutes.

A simple arrow type

Let's define a really simple arrow type as an example, based on a function mapping an input to an output:

> newtype SimpleFunc a b = SimpleFunc {
>     runF :: (a -> b)
> }
>
> instance Arrow SimpleFunc where
>     arr f = SimpleFunc f
>     first (SimpleFunc f) = SimpleFunc (mapFst f)
>                   where mapFst g (a,b) = (g a, b)
>     second (SimpleFunc f) = SimpleFunc (mapSnd f)
>                   where mapSnd g (a,b) = (a, g b)
>
> instance Category SimpleFunc where
>     (SimpleFunc g) . (SimpleFunc f) = SimpleFunc (g . f)
>     id = arr id

Some other arrow operations

Now let's define some operations that are generic to all arrow types:

  • split is an arrow value that splits a single value into a pair of duplicate values:
> split :: (Arrow a) => a b (b, b)
> split = arr (\x -> (x,x))
  • unsplit is an arrow value that takes a pair of values and combines them to return a single value:
> unsplit :: (Arrow a) => (b -> c -> d) -> a (b, c) d
> unsplit = arr . uncurry       
>      -- = \op -> arr (\(x,y) -> x `op` y)
  • (***) combines two arrow values by running them on a pair (the first arrow value on the first component of the pair; the second arrow value on the second component of the pair):
f *** g = first f >>> second g
  • (&&&) combines two arrow values by running them with the same input:
f &&& g = split >>> first f >>> second g
     -- = split >>> f *** g
  • liftA2 makes a new arrow value that combines the output from two other arrow values using a binary operation. It works by splitting a value and operating on both halves and then combining the result:
> liftA2 :: (Arrow a) => (b -> c -> d) -> a e b -> a e c -> a e d
> liftA2 op f g = split >>> first f >>> second g >>> unsplit op
>            -- = f &&& g >>> unsplit op

An example

Now let's build something using our simple arrow definition and some of the tools we've just created. We start with two simple arrow values, f and g:

  • f halves its input:
> f :: SimpleFunc Int Int
> f = arr (`div` 2)
  • and g triples its input and adds one:
> g :: SimpleFunc Int Int
> g = arr (\x -> x*3 + 1)

We can combine these together using liftA2:

> h :: SimpleFunc Int Int
> h = liftA2 (+) f g
>
> hOutput :: Int
> hOutput = runF h 8

What is h? How does it work?

The process defined by h is split >>> first f >>> second g >>> unsplit (+). Let's work through an application of h to the value 8:

8 (8, 8) split
(8, 8) (4, 8) first fx `div` 2, where x is the first component of the pair
(4, 8) (4, 25) second g3*y + 1, where y is the second component of the pair
(4, 25) 29 apply (+) to the components of the pair
              f
            ↗   ↘
 8 → (split)     (unsplit (+)) → 29
            ↘   ↗
              g 

We can see that h is a new arrow value that, when applied to 8, will apply both f and g to 8, then adds their results.

A lot of juggling occurred to get the plumbing right since h wasn't defined as a linear combination of arrow values. GHC has a syntactic notation that simplifies this in a similar way to how do-notation simplifies monadic computations. The h function can then be defined as:

> h' :: SimpleFunc Int Int
> h' = proc x -> do
>       fx <- f -< x
>       gx <- g -< x
>       returnA -< (fx + gx)
>
> hOutput' :: Int
> hOutput' = runF h' 8

Kleisli arrow values

Let's move on to something a little fancier now: Kleisli arrows.

A Kleisli arrow type (Kleisli m a b) corresponds to the type (a -> m b), where m is a monadic type. It's defined in Control.Arrows similarly to our SimpleFunc:

newtype Kleisli m a b = Kleisli {
  runKleisli :: (a -> m b) 
}

It comes complete with its own definitions for arr, (>>>), first, and second. This means that all multi-value functions (i.e of type a -> [b]) are already defined as Kleisli arrows (because the list type [] is monadic)! (>>>) performs composition, keeping track of all the multiple results. split, (&&&) and (***) are all defined as before. For example:

> plusminus, double, h2 :: Kleisli [] Int Int
> plusminus = Kleisli (\x -> [x, -x])
> double    = arr (* 2)
> h2        = liftA2 (+) plusminus double 
>
> h2Output :: [Int]
> h2Output = runKleisli h2 8

A Teaser

Finally, here is a little teaser. There is an arrow function called returnA which returns an identity arrow. There is an ArrowPlus class that includes a zeroArrow (which for the list type is an arrow value that always returns the empty list) and a (<+>) operator (which takes the results from two arrow values and concatenates them). We can build up some pretty interesting string transformations (multi-valued functions of type String -> [String]) using Kleisli arrow values:

> main :: IO ()
> main = do
>    let
>        prepend x = arr (x ++)
>        append  x = arr (++ x)
>        withId  t = returnA <+> t
>        xform = (withId $ prepend "<") >>>
>                (withId $ append ">") >>>
>                (withId $ ((prepend "!") >>> (append "!")))
>        xs = ["test", "foobar"] >>= (runKleisli xform)
>    mapM_ putStrLn xs

An important observation here is that

   f >>> g

is a multi-valued composition (g . f), and

(withId f) >>> (withId g)
= (returnA <+> f) >>> (returnA <+> g)
= ((arr id) <+> f) >>> ((arr id) <+> g)

which, when applied to an input x, returns all values:

((id . id) x) ++ ((id . f) x) ++ ((id . g) x) ++ ((g . f) x)
= x ++ (f x) ++ (g x) ++ ((g . f) x)

which are all permutations of using the arrow values f and g.

Tutorial Meta

The wiki file source is literate Haskell. Save the source in a file called ArrowFun.lhs to compile it (or run in GHCi).

The code is adapted to GHC 6.10.1; use [1] for older versions of GHC and other Haskell implementations.

  • Original version - Nov 19, 2006, Tim Newsham.