Difference between revisions of "Learn Haskell in 10 minutes"

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== Overview ==
 
== Overview ==
   
Haskell is a functional (that is, everything is done with function calls), statically, implicitly typed ([[type]]s are checked by the compiler, but you don't have to declare them), lazy (nothing is done until it needs to be) language. It's closest popular relative is probably the ML family of languages.
+
Haskell is a functional (that is, everything is done with function calls), statically, implicitly typed ([[type]]s are checked by the compiler, but you don't have to declare them), lazy (nothing is done until it needs to be) language. Its closest popular relative is probably the ML family of languages (which are not, however, lazy languages).
   
The most common Haskell compiler is [[GHC]]. You can download GHC from http://www.haskell.org/ghc/download_ghc_661.html . GHC binaries are available for [[GNU/Linux]], [[BSD | FreeBSD]], [[Mac OS X |MacOS]], [[Windows]], and [[Solaris]]. Once you've installed [[GHC]], you get two programs you're interested in right now: <tt>ghc</tt>, and <tt>[[GHC/GHCi | ghci]]</tt>. The first compiles Haskell libraries or applications to binary code. The second is an interpreter that lets you write Haskell code and get feedback right away.
+
The most common Haskell compiler is [[GHC]]. You can download GHC from http://www.haskell.org/ghc/download . GHC binaries are available for [[GNU/Linux]], [[BSD | FreeBSD]], [[Mac OS X |MacOS]], [[Windows]], and [[Solaris]]. Once you've installed [[GHC]], you get two programs you're interested in right now: <tt>ghc</tt>, and <tt>[[GHC/GHCi | ghci]]</tt>. The first compiles Haskell libraries or applications to binary code. The second is an interpreter that lets you write Haskell code and get feedback right away.
   
 
== Simple expressions ==
 
== Simple expressions ==
   
You can type most math expressions directly into <tt>ghci</tt> and get an answer.
+
You can type most math expressions directly into <tt>ghci</tt> and get an answer. <tt>Prelude></tt> is the default GHCi prompt.
   
Prelude> <hask>3 * 5</hask>
+
Prelude> 3 * 5
 
15
 
15
Prelude> <hask>4 ^ 2 - 1</hask>
+
Prelude> 4 ^ 2 - 1
 
15
 
15
Prelude> <hask>(1 - 5)^(3 * 2 - 4)</hask>
+
Prelude> (1 - 5)^(3 * 2 - 4)
 
16
 
16
   
 
Strings are in "double quotes." You can concatenate them with <hask>++</hask>.
 
Strings are in "double quotes." You can concatenate them with <hask>++</hask>.
   
Prelude> <hask>"Hello"</hask>
+
Prelude> "Hello"
 
"Hello"
 
"Hello"
Prelude> <hask>"Hello" ++ ", Haskell"</hask>
+
Prelude> "Hello" ++ ", Haskell"
 
"Hello, Haskell"
 
"Hello, Haskell"
   
 
Calling [[function]]s is done by putting the arguments directly after the function. There are no parentheses as part of the function call:
 
Calling [[function]]s is done by putting the arguments directly after the function. There are no parentheses as part of the function call:
   
Prelude> <hask>succ 5</hask>
+
Prelude> succ 5
 
6
 
6
Prelude> <hask>truncate 6.59</hask>
+
Prelude> truncate 6.59
 
6
 
6
Prelude> <hask>round 6.59</hask>
+
Prelude> round 6.59
 
7
 
7
Prelude> <hask>sqrt 2</hask>
+
Prelude> sqrt 2
 
1.4142135623730951
 
1.4142135623730951
Prelude> <hask>not (5 < 3)</hask>
+
Prelude> not (5 < 3)
 
True
 
True
Prelude> <hask>gcd 21 14</hask>
+
Prelude> gcd 21 14
 
7
 
7
   
Line 42: Line 42:
 
[[Introduction to IO |I/O actions]] can be used to read from and write to the console. Some common ones include:
 
[[Introduction to IO |I/O actions]] can be used to read from and write to the console. Some common ones include:
   
Prelude> <hask>putStrLn "Hello, Haskell"</hask>
+
Prelude> putStrLn "Hello, Haskell"
 
Hello, Haskell
 
Hello, Haskell
Prelude> <hask>putStr "No newline"</hask>
+
Prelude> putStr "No newline"
  +
No newline
No newlinePrelude> <hask>print (5 + 4)</hask>
 
  +
Prelude> print (5 + 4)
 
9
 
9
Prelude> <hask>print (1 < 2)</hask>
+
Prelude> print (1 < 2)
 
True
 
True
   
The <hask>putStr</hask> and <hask>putStrLn</hask> functions output strings. The <hask>print</hask> function outputs any type of value. (If you <hask>print</hask> a string, it will have quotes around it.)
+
The <hask>putStr</hask> and <hask>putStrLn</hask> functions output strings to the terminal. The <hask>print</hask> function outputs any type of value. (If you <hask>print</hask> a string, it will have quotes around it.)
   
 
If you need multiple I/O actions in one expression, you can use a <hask>do</hask> block. Actions are separated by semicolons.
 
If you need multiple I/O actions in one expression, you can use a <hask>do</hask> block. Actions are separated by semicolons.
   
Prelude> <hask>do { putStr "2 + 2 = " ; print (2 + 2) }</hask>
+
Prelude> do { putStr "2 + 2 = " ; print (2 + 2) }
 
2 + 2 = 4
 
2 + 2 = 4
Prelude> <hask>do { putStrLn "ABCDE" ; putStrLn "12345" }</hask>
+
Prelude> do { putStrLn "ABCDE" ; putStrLn "12345" }
 
ABCDE
 
ABCDE
 
12345
 
12345
   
Reading can be done with <hask>getLine</hask> (which gives back a <hask>String</hask>) or <hask>readLn</hask> (which gives back whatever type of value you want). The <hask> <- </hask> symbol is used to assign a value to the result of an I/O action.
+
Reading can be done with <hask>getLine</hask> (which gives back a <hask>String</hask>) or <hask>readLn</hask> (which gives back whatever type of value you want). The <hask> <- </hask> symbol is used to assign a name to the result of an I/O action.
   
Prelude> <hask>do { n <- readLn ; print (n^2) }</hask>
+
Prelude> do { n <- readLn ; print (n^2) }
 
4
 
4
 
16
 
16
Line 78: Line 79:
 
</haskell>
 
</haskell>
   
You can build with <tt>ghc --make Test.hs</tt>, and the result will be called <tt>Test</tt>. (On [[Windows]], <tt>Test.exe</tt>) You get an <hask>if</hask> statement as a bonus.
+
You can build with <tt>ghc --make Test.hs</tt>, and the result will be called <tt>Test</tt>. (On [[Windows]], <tt>Test.exe</tt>) You get an <hask>if</hask> expression as a bonus.
   
Every line that starts in the same column as the first <hask>putStrLn</hask> is part of the <hask>do</hask> block. This is called "layout", and Haskell uses it to avoid making you put in statement terminators and braces all the time. (The <hask>then</hask> and <hask>else</hask> phrases have to be indented for this reason: if they started in the same column, they'd be separate statements, which is wrong.)
+
The first non-space character after <hask>do</hask> is special. In this case, it's the <tt>p</tt> from <hask>putStrLn</hask>. Every line that starts in the same column as that <hask>p</hask> is another statement in the <hask>do</hask> block. If you indent more, it's part of the previous statement. If you indent less, it ends the <hask>do</hask> block. This is called "layout", and Haskell uses it to avoid making you put in statement terminators and braces all the time. (The <hask>then</hask> and <hask>else</hask> phrases have to be indented for this reason: if they started in the same column, they'd be separate statements, which is wrong.)
   
(Note: Do '''not''' indent with tabs if you're using layout. It technically still works if your tabs are 8 spaces, but it's a bad idea.)
+
(Note: Do '''not''' indent with tabs if you're using layout. It technically still works if your tabs are 8 spaces, but it's a bad idea. Also, don't use proportional fonts -- which apparently some people do, even when programming!)
   
 
== Simple types ==
 
== Simple types ==
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So far, not a single [[type]] declaration has been mentioned. That's because Haskell does type inference. You generally don't have to declare types unless you want to. If you do want to declare types, you use <hask>::</hask> to do it.
 
So far, not a single [[type]] declaration has been mentioned. That's because Haskell does type inference. You generally don't have to declare types unless you want to. If you do want to declare types, you use <hask>::</hask> to do it.
   
Prelude> <hask>5 :: Int</hask>
+
Prelude> 5 :: Int
 
5
 
5
Prelude> <hask>5 :: Double</hask>
+
Prelude> 5 :: Double
 
5.0
 
5.0
   
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You can also ask <tt>ghci</tt> what type it has chosen for something. This is useful because you don't generally have to declare your types.
 
You can also ask <tt>ghci</tt> what type it has chosen for something. This is useful because you don't generally have to declare your types.
   
Prelude> :t <hask>True</hask>
+
Prelude> :t True
<hask>True :: Bool</hask>
+
True :: Bool
Prelude> :t <hask>'X'</hask>
+
Prelude> :t 'X'
<hask>'X' :: Char</hask>
+
'X' :: Char
Prelude> :t <hask>"Hello, Haskell"</hask>
+
Prelude> :t "Hello, Haskell"
<hask>"Hello, Haskell" :: [Char]</hask>
+
"Hello, Haskell" :: [Char]
   
 
(In case you noticed, <hask>[Char]</hask> is another way of saying <hask>String</hask>. See the [[#Structured data|section on lists]] later.)
 
(In case you noticed, <hask>[Char]</hask> is another way of saying <hask>String</hask>. See the [[#Structured data|section on lists]] later.)
Line 108: Line 109:
 
Things get more interesting for numbers.
 
Things get more interesting for numbers.
   
Prelude> :t <hask>42</hask>
+
Prelude> :t 42
<hask>42 :: (Num t) => t</hask>
+
42 :: (Num t) => t
Prelude> :t <hask>42.0</hask>
+
Prelude> :t 42.0
<hask>42.0 :: (Fractional t) => t</hask>
+
42.0 :: (Fractional t) => t
Prelude> :t <hask>gcd 15 20</hask>
+
Prelude> :t gcd 15 20
<hask>gcd 15 20 :: (Integral t) => t</hask>
+
gcd 15 20 :: (Integral t) => t
   
 
These types use "type classes." They mean:
 
These types use "type classes." They mean:
Line 129: Line 130:
 
* <hask>Rational</hask> is a fraction type, with no rounding error.
 
* <hask>Rational</hask> is a fraction type, with no rounding error.
   
All five are '''instances''' of the <hask>Num</hask> type class. The first two are '''instances''' of <hask>Integral</hask>, and the last two are '''instances''' of <hask>Fractional</hask>.
+
All five are '''instances''' of the <hask>Num</hask> type class. The first two are '''instances''' of <hask>Integral</hask>, and the last three are '''instances''' of <hask>Fractional</hask>.
   
 
Putting it all together,
 
Putting it all together,
   
Prelude> <hask>gcd 42 35 :: Int</hask>
+
Prelude> gcd 42 35 :: Int
 
7
 
7
Prelude> <hask>gcd 42 35 :: Double</hask>
+
Prelude> gcd 42 35 :: Double
 
 
 
<interactive>:1:0:
 
<interactive>:1:0:
Line 142: Line 143:
 
The final type worth mentioning here is <hask>()</hask>, pronounced "unit." It only has one value, also written as <hask>()</hask> and pronounced "unit."
 
The final type worth mentioning here is <hask>()</hask>, pronounced "unit." It only has one value, also written as <hask>()</hask> and pronounced "unit."
   
Prelude> <hask>()</hask>
+
Prelude> ()
<hask>()</hask>
+
()
Prelude> :t <hask>()</hask>
+
Prelude> :t ()
<hask>() :: ()</hask>
+
() :: ()
   
You can think of this as similar to the <tt>void</tt> keyword in C family languages. You can return <hask>()</hask> from a function or I/O action if you don't want to return anything.
+
You can think of this as similar to the <tt>void</tt> keyword in C family languages. You can return <hask>()</hask> from an I/O action if you don't want to return anything.
   
 
== Structured data ==
 
== Structured data ==
Line 155: Line 156:
 
Lists are used to hold multiple values of the same type.
 
Lists are used to hold multiple values of the same type.
   
Prelude> <hask>[1, 2, 3]</hask>
+
Prelude> [1, 2, 3]
 
[1,2,3]
 
[1,2,3]
Prelude> <hask>[1 .. 5]</hask>
+
Prelude> [1 .. 5]
 
[1,2,3,4,5]
 
[1,2,3,4,5]
Prelude> <hask>[1, 3 .. 10]</hask>
+
Prelude> [1, 3 .. 10]
 
[1,3,5,7,9]
 
[1,3,5,7,9]
Prelude> <hask>[True, False, True]</hask>
+
Prelude> [True, False, True]
 
[True,False,True]
 
[True,False,True]
   
 
Strings are just lists of characters.
 
Strings are just lists of characters.
   
Prelude> <hask>['H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']</hask>
+
Prelude> ['H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
 
"Hello"
 
"Hello"
   
The <hask>:</hask> operator appends an item to the beginning of a list. (It is Haskell's version of LISP's cons).
+
The <hask>:</hask> operator appends an item to the beginning of a list. (It is Haskell's version of the <tt>cons</tt> function in the Lisp family of languages.)
   
Prelude> <hask>'C' : ['H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']</hask>
+
Prelude> 'C' : ['H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
 
"CHello"
 
"CHello"
   
 
Tuples hold a fixed number of values, which can have different types.
 
Tuples hold a fixed number of values, which can have different types.
   
Prelude> <hask>(1, True)</hask>
+
Prelude> (1, True)
 
(1,True)
 
(1,True)
Prelude> <hask>zip [1 .. 5] ['a' .. 'e']</hask>
+
Prelude> zip [1 .. 5] ['a' .. 'e']
 
[(1,'a'),(2,'b'),(3,'c'),(4,'d'),(5,'e')]
 
[(1,'a'),(2,'b'),(3,'c'),(4,'d'),(5,'e')]
   
Line 185: Line 186:
 
The types are probably what you'd expect.
 
The types are probably what you'd expect.
   
Prelude> :t <hask>['a' .. 'c']</hask>
+
Prelude> :t ['a' .. 'c']
<hask>['a' .. 'c'] :: [Char]</hask>
+
['a' .. 'c'] :: [Char]
Prelude> :t <hask>[('x', True), ('y', False)]</hask>
+
Prelude> :t [('x', True), ('y', False)]
<hask>[('x', True), ('y', False)] :: [(Char, Bool)]</hask>
+
[('x', True), ('y', False)] :: [(Char, Bool)]
   
 
Lists are used a lot in Haskell. There are several functions that do nice things with them.
 
Lists are used a lot in Haskell. There are several functions that do nice things with them.
   
Prelude> <hask>[1 .. 5]</hask>
+
Prelude> [1 .. 5]
<hask>[1,2,3,4,5]</hask>
+
[1,2,3,4,5]
Prelude> <hask>map (+ 2) [1 .. 5]</hask>
+
Prelude> map (+ 2) [1 .. 5]
<hask>[3,4,5,6,7]</hask>
+
[3,4,5,6,7]
Prelude> <hask>filter (> 2) [1 .. 5]</hask>
+
Prelude> filter (> 2) [1 .. 5]
<hask>[3,4,5]</hask>
+
[3,4,5]
   
 
There are two nice functions on ordered pairs (tuples of two elements):
 
There are two nice functions on ordered pairs (tuples of two elements):
   
Prelude> <hask>fst (1, 2)</hask>
+
Prelude> fst (1, 2)
  +
1
<hask>1</hask>
 
Prelude> <hask>snd (1, 2)</hask>
+
Prelude> snd (1, 2)
  +
2
<hask>2</hask>
 
Prelude> <hask>map fst [(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6)]</hask>
+
Prelude> map fst [(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6)]
<hask>[1,3,5]</hask>
+
[1,3,5]
  +
  +
Also see [[how to work on lists]]
   
== Function definitions ==
+
== [[Function]] definitions ==
   
We wrote a function earlier, called <hask>main</hask>:
+
We wrote a definition of an [[Introduction to Haskell IO/Actions |IO action]] earlier, called <hask>main</hask>:
   
 
<haskell>
 
<haskell>
Line 220: Line 223:
 
</haskell>
 
</haskell>
   
Let's write another, and call it <hask>factorial</hask>. I'm also adding a module header, which is good form.
+
Now, let's supplement it by actually writing a ''[[function]]'' definition and call it <hask>factorial</hask>. I'm also adding a module header, which is good form.
   
 
<haskell>
 
<haskell>
Line 243: Line 246:
 
There's a function. Just like the built-in functions, it can be called as <hask>factorial 5</hask> without needing parentheses.
 
There's a function. Just like the built-in functions, it can be called as <hask>factorial 5</hask> without needing parentheses.
   
Now ask <tt>ghci</tt> for the type.
+
Now ask <tt>ghci</tt> for the [[type]].
   
 
$ ghci Test.hs
 
$ ghci Test.hs
 
<< GHCi banner >>
 
<< GHCi banner >>
 
Ok, modules loaded: Main.
 
Ok, modules loaded: Main.
Prelude Main> :t <hask>factorial</hask>
+
Prelude Main> :t factorial
<hask>factorial :: (Num a) => a -> a</hask>
+
factorial :: (Num a) => a -> a
   
Function types are written with the argument type, a <hask> -> </hask>, and the result type. (This also has the type class <hask>Num</hask>.)
+
Function types are written with the argument type, then <hask> -> </hask>, then the result type. (This also has the type class <hask>Num</hask>.)
   
 
Factorial can be simplified by writing it with case analysis.
 
Factorial can be simplified by writing it with case analysis.
Line 262: Line 265:
 
== Convenient syntax ==
 
== Convenient syntax ==
   
A couple extra pieces of syntax are helpful.
+
A couple extra pieces of [[:Category:Syntax |syntax]] are helpful.
   
 
<haskell>
 
<haskell>
Line 268: Line 271:
 
perHour = 60 * perMinute
 
perHour = 60 * perMinute
 
perDay = 24 * perHour
 
perDay = 24 * perHour
perWeek = 7 * perday
+
perWeek = 7 * perDay
in secs * perWeek
+
in secs / perWeek
 
</haskell>
 
</haskell>
   
The <hask>let</hask> statement defines temporary names. (This is using layout again. You could use {braces}, and separate the names with parentheses, if you prefer.)
+
The <hask>let</hask> expression defines temporary names. (This is using layout again. You could use {braces}, and separate the names with semicolons, if you prefer.)
   
 
<haskell>
 
<haskell>
Line 281: Line 284:
 
</haskell>
 
</haskell>
   
The <hask>case</hask> statement does a multi-way branch. The special label <hask>_</hask> means "anything else".
+
The <hask>case</hask> expression does a multi-way branch. The special label <hask>_</hask> means "anything else".
   
 
== Using libraries ==
 
== Using libraries ==
   
  +
Everything used so far in this tutorial is part of the [[Prelude]], which is the set of Haskell functions that are always there in any program.
The best road from here to becoming a very productive Haskell programmer (aside from practice!) is becoming familiar with libraries that do the things you need. Documentation on the standard libraries is at [http://haskell.org/ghc/docs/latest/html/libraries/ http://haskell.org/ghc/docs/latest/html/libraries/], where you'll find documentation for the standard libraries. There are modules there with:
 
   
 
The best road from here to becoming a very productive Haskell programmer (aside from practice!) is becoming familiar with other [[Applications and libraries | libraries]] that do the things you need. Documentation on the standard libraries is at [http://haskell.org/ghc/docs/latest/html/libraries/ http://haskell.org/ghc/docs/latest/html/libraries/]. There are modules there with:
* Useful data structures
 
  +
* Concurrent and parallel programming
 
* Graphics and GUI libraries
+
* [[Applications and libraries/Data structures |Useful data structures]]
  +
* [[Applications and libraries/Concurrency and parallelism |Concurrent and parallel programming]]
* Networking, POSIX, and other system-level stuff
 
  +
* [[Applications and libraries/GUI libraries | Graphics and GUI libraries]]
 
* [[Applications and libraries/Network | Networking, POSIX, and other system-level stuff]]
 
* Two test frameworks, QuickCheck and HUnit
 
* Two test frameworks, QuickCheck and HUnit
 
* Regular expressions and predictive parsers
 
* Regular expressions and predictive parsers
Line 298: Line 303:
 
module Main where
 
module Main where
   
import Data.Map as M
+
import qualified Data.Map as M
   
 
errorsPerLine = M.fromList
 
errorsPerLine = M.fromList
Line 313: Line 318:
 
The <hask>import</hask> says to use code from <hask>Data.Map</hask> and that it will be prefixed by <hask>M</hask>. (That's necessary because some of the functions have the same names as functions from the prelude. Most libraries don't need the <hask>as</hask> part.)
 
The <hask>import</hask> says to use code from <hask>Data.Map</hask> and that it will be prefixed by <hask>M</hask>. (That's necessary because some of the functions have the same names as functions from the prelude. Most libraries don't need the <hask>as</hask> part.)
   
If you want something that's not in the standard library, try looking at [http://hackage.haskell.org/packages/hackage.html http://hackage.haskell.org/packages/hackage.html]. This is a collection of many different libraries written by a lot of people for Haskell. Once you've got a library, extract it and switch into that directory and do this:
+
If you want something that's not in the standard library, try looking at http://hackage.haskell.org/packages/hackage.html or this wiki's [[applications and libraries]] page. This is a collection of many different libraries written by a lot of people for Haskell. Once you've got a library, extract it and switch into that directory and do this:
   
 
runhaskell Setup configure
 
runhaskell Setup configure
Line 323: Line 328:
 
== Topics that don't fit in 10 minute limit ==
 
== Topics that don't fit in 10 minute limit ==
   
* Advanced data types
+
* [[:Category:Language | Advanced data types]]
 
** Arithmetic lists
 
** Arithmetic lists
** List comprehensions
+
** [[List comprehension]]s
** Type synonyms
+
** [[Type#Type and newtype | Type synonyms]]
** data vs newtype
+
** [[Type|data vs newtype]] (and [[Newtype|here]])
** Type classes and instances
+
** [[Class |Type classes and instances]]
* Advanced syntax
+
* [[:Category:Syntax |Advanced syntax]]
  +
** [[Infix operator |Infix operators]]
** Operators
 
** (+) and `foo`
 
** Fixity declarations
 
 
* Advanced functions
 
* Advanced functions
** Currying
+
** [[Currying]]
  +
** [[Lambda abstraction]]s
** Lambdas
 
** Sections
+
** [[Section of an infix operator |Sections]]
* Monads
+
* [[:Category:Monad |Monads]]
  +
* [[Tutorials/Programming Haskell/String IO |File I/O]]
* File I/O
 
 
** Reading files
 
** Reading files
 
** Writing Files
 
** Writing Files
  +
  +
[[Category:Tutorials]]
  +
Languages: [[Learn Haskell in 10 minutes|en]] [[Cn/十分钟学会 Haskell|zh/cn]] [[10分で学ぶHaskell|ja]] [[Haskell em 10 minutos|pt]] [[Aprende Haskell en 10 minutos|es]]

Latest revision as of 17:59, 9 August 2019

Overview

Haskell is a functional (that is, everything is done with function calls), statically, implicitly typed (types are checked by the compiler, but you don't have to declare them), lazy (nothing is done until it needs to be) language. Its closest popular relative is probably the ML family of languages (which are not, however, lazy languages).

The most common Haskell compiler is GHC. You can download GHC from http://www.haskell.org/ghc/download . GHC binaries are available for GNU/Linux, FreeBSD, MacOS, Windows, and Solaris. Once you've installed GHC, you get two programs you're interested in right now: ghc, and ghci. The first compiles Haskell libraries or applications to binary code. The second is an interpreter that lets you write Haskell code and get feedback right away.

Simple expressions

You can type most math expressions directly into ghci and get an answer. Prelude> is the default GHCi prompt.

 Prelude> 3 * 5
 15
 Prelude> 4 ^ 2 - 1
 15
 Prelude> (1 - 5)^(3 * 2 - 4)
 16

Strings are in "double quotes." You can concatenate them with ++.

 Prelude> "Hello"
 "Hello"
 Prelude> "Hello" ++ ", Haskell"
 "Hello, Haskell"

Calling functions is done by putting the arguments directly after the function. There are no parentheses as part of the function call:

 Prelude> succ 5
 6
 Prelude> truncate 6.59
 6
 Prelude> round 6.59
 7
 Prelude> sqrt 2
 1.4142135623730951
 Prelude> not (5 < 3)
 True
 Prelude> gcd 21 14
 7

The console

I/O actions can be used to read from and write to the console. Some common ones include:

 Prelude> putStrLn "Hello, Haskell"
 Hello, Haskell
 Prelude> putStr "No newline"
 No newline
 Prelude> print (5 + 4)
 9
 Prelude> print (1 < 2)
 True

The putStr and putStrLn functions output strings to the terminal. The print function outputs any type of value. (If you print a string, it will have quotes around it.)

If you need multiple I/O actions in one expression, you can use a do block. Actions are separated by semicolons.

 Prelude> do { putStr "2 + 2 = " ; print (2 + 2) }
 2 + 2 = 4
 Prelude> do { putStrLn "ABCDE" ; putStrLn "12345" }
 ABCDE
 12345

Reading can be done with getLine (which gives back a String) or readLn (which gives back whatever type of value you want). The <- symbol is used to assign a name to the result of an I/O action.

 Prelude> do { n <- readLn ; print (n^2) }
 4
 16

(The 4 was input. The 16 was a result.)

There is actually another way to write do blocks. If you leave off the braces and semicolons, then indentation becomes significant. This doesn't work so well in ghci, but try putting the file in a source file (say, Test.hs) and build it.

main = do putStrLn "What is 2 + 2?"
          x <- readLn
          if x == 4
              then putStrLn "You're right!"
              else putStrLn "You're wrong!"

You can build with ghc --make Test.hs, and the result will be called Test. (On Windows, Test.exe) You get an if expression as a bonus.

The first non-space character after do is special. In this case, it's the p from putStrLn. Every line that starts in the same column as that p is another statement in the do block. If you indent more, it's part of the previous statement. If you indent less, it ends the do block. This is called "layout", and Haskell uses it to avoid making you put in statement terminators and braces all the time. (The then and else phrases have to be indented for this reason: if they started in the same column, they'd be separate statements, which is wrong.)

(Note: Do not indent with tabs if you're using layout. It technically still works if your tabs are 8 spaces, but it's a bad idea. Also, don't use proportional fonts -- which apparently some people do, even when programming!)

Simple types

So far, not a single type declaration has been mentioned. That's because Haskell does type inference. You generally don't have to declare types unless you want to. If you do want to declare types, you use :: to do it.

 Prelude> 5 :: Int
 5
 Prelude> 5 :: Double
 5.0

Types (and type classes, discussed later) always start with upper-case letters in Haskell. Variables always start with lower-case letters. This is a rule of the language, not a naming convention.

You can also ask ghci what type it has chosen for something. This is useful because you don't generally have to declare your types.

 Prelude> :t True
 True :: Bool
 Prelude> :t 'X'
 'X' :: Char
 Prelude> :t "Hello, Haskell"
 "Hello, Haskell" :: [Char]

(In case you noticed, [Char] is another way of saying String. See the section on lists later.)

Things get more interesting for numbers.

 Prelude> :t 42
 42 :: (Num t) => t
 Prelude> :t 42.0
 42.0 :: (Fractional t) => t
 Prelude> :t gcd 15 20
 gcd 15 20 :: (Integral t) => t

These types use "type classes." They mean:

  • 42 can be used as any numeric type. (This is why I was able to declare 5 as either an Int or a Double earlier.)
  • 42.0 can be any fractional type, but not an integral type.
  • gcd 15 20 (which is a function call, incidentally) can be any integral type, but not a fractional type.

There are five numeric types in the Haskell "prelude" (the part of the library you get without having to import anything):

  • Int is an integer with at least 30 bits of precision.
  • Integer is an integer with unlimited precision.
  • Float is a single precision floating point number.
  • Double is a double precision floating point number.
  • Rational is a fraction type, with no rounding error.

All five are instances of the Num type class. The first two are instances of Integral, and the last three are instances of Fractional.

Putting it all together,

 Prelude> gcd 42 35 :: Int
 7
 Prelude> gcd 42 35 :: Double
 
 <interactive>:1:0:
     No instance for (Integral Double)

The final type worth mentioning here is (), pronounced "unit." It only has one value, also written as () and pronounced "unit."

 Prelude> ()
 ()
 Prelude> :t ()
 () :: ()

You can think of this as similar to the void keyword in C family languages. You can return () from an I/O action if you don't want to return anything.

Structured data

Basic data types can be easily combined in two ways: lists, which go in [square brackets], and tuples, which go in (parentheses).

Lists are used to hold multiple values of the same type.

 Prelude> [1, 2, 3]
 [1,2,3]
 Prelude> [1 .. 5]
 [1,2,3,4,5]
 Prelude> [1, 3 .. 10]
 [1,3,5,7,9]
 Prelude> [True, False, True]
 [True,False,True]

Strings are just lists of characters.

 Prelude> ['H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
 "Hello"

The : operator appends an item to the beginning of a list. (It is Haskell's version of the cons function in the Lisp family of languages.)

 Prelude> 'C' : ['H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
 "CHello"

Tuples hold a fixed number of values, which can have different types.

 Prelude> (1, True)
 (1,True)
 Prelude> zip [1 .. 5] ['a' .. 'e']
 [(1,'a'),(2,'b'),(3,'c'),(4,'d'),(5,'e')]

The last example used zip, a library function that turns two lists into a list of tuples.

The types are probably what you'd expect.

 Prelude> :t ['a' .. 'c']
 ['a' .. 'c'] :: [Char]
 Prelude> :t [('x', True), ('y', False)]
 [('x', True), ('y', False)] :: [(Char, Bool)]

Lists are used a lot in Haskell. There are several functions that do nice things with them.

 Prelude> [1 .. 5]
 [1,2,3,4,5]
 Prelude> map (+ 2) [1 .. 5]
 [3,4,5,6,7]
 Prelude> filter (> 2) [1 .. 5]
 [3,4,5]

There are two nice functions on ordered pairs (tuples of two elements):

 Prelude> fst (1, 2)
 1
 Prelude> snd (1, 2)
 2
 Prelude> map fst [(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6)]
 [1,3,5]

Also see how to work on lists

Function definitions

We wrote a definition of an IO action earlier, called main:

main = do putStrLn "What is 2 + 2?"
          x <- readLn
          if x == 4
              then putStrLn "You're right!"
              else putStrLn "You're wrong!"

Now, let's supplement it by actually writing a function definition and call it factorial. I'm also adding a module header, which is good form.

module Main where

factorial n = if n == 0 then 1 else n * factorial (n - 1)

main = do putStrLn "What is 5! ?"
          x <- readLn
          if x == factorial 5
              then putStrLn "You're right!"
              else putStrLn "You're wrong!"

Build again with ghc --make Test.hs. And,

 $ ./Test
 What is 5! ?
 120
 You're right!

There's a function. Just like the built-in functions, it can be called as factorial 5 without needing parentheses.

Now ask ghci for the type.

 $ ghci Test.hs
 << GHCi banner >>
 Ok, modules loaded: Main.
 Prelude Main> :t factorial
 factorial :: (Num a) => a -> a

Function types are written with the argument type, then ->, then the result type. (This also has the type class Num.)

Factorial can be simplified by writing it with case analysis.

factorial 0 = 1
factorial n = n * factorial (n - 1)

Convenient syntax

A couple extra pieces of syntax are helpful.

secsToWeeks secs = let perMinute = 60
                       perHour   = 60 * perMinute
                       perDay    = 24 * perHour
                       perWeek   =  7 * perDay
                   in  secs / perWeek

The let expression defines temporary names. (This is using layout again. You could use {braces}, and separate the names with semicolons, if you prefer.)

classify age = case age of 0 -> "newborn"
                           1 -> "infant"
                           2 -> "toddler"
                           _ -> "senior citizen"

The case expression does a multi-way branch. The special label _ means "anything else".

Using libraries

Everything used so far in this tutorial is part of the Prelude, which is the set of Haskell functions that are always there in any program.

The best road from here to becoming a very productive Haskell programmer (aside from practice!) is becoming familiar with other libraries that do the things you need. Documentation on the standard libraries is at http://haskell.org/ghc/docs/latest/html/libraries/. There are modules there with:

module Main where

import qualified Data.Map as M

errorsPerLine = M.fromList
    [ ("Chris", 472), ("Don", 100), ("Simon", -5) ]

main = do putStrLn "Who are you?"
          name <- getLine
          case M.lookup name errorsPerLine of
              Nothing -> putStrLn "I don't know you"
              Just n  -> do putStr "Errors per line: "
                            print n

The import says to use code from Data.Map and that it will be prefixed by M. (That's necessary because some of the functions have the same names as functions from the prelude. Most libraries don't need the as part.)

If you want something that's not in the standard library, try looking at http://hackage.haskell.org/packages/hackage.html or this wiki's applications and libraries page. This is a collection of many different libraries written by a lot of people for Haskell. Once you've got a library, extract it and switch into that directory and do this:

 runhaskell Setup configure
 runhaskell Setup build
 runhaskell Setup install

On a UNIX system, you may need to be root for that last part.

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