Exception

An exception denotes an unpredictable situation at runtime, like "out of disk storage", "read protected file", "user removed disk while reading", "syntax error in user input". These are situations which occur relatively seldom and thus their immediate handling would clutter the code which should describe the regular processing. Since exceptions must be expected at runtime there are also mechanisms for (selectively) handling them. (Control.Exception.try, Control.Exception.catch) Unfortunately Haskell's standard library names common exceptions of IO actions IOError and the module Control.Monad.Error is about exception handling not error handling. In general you should be very careful not to mix up exceptions with errors. Actually, an unhandled exception is an error.

Implementation

Exception monad

The great thing about Haskell is that it is not necessary to hard-wire the exception handling into the language. Everything is already there to implement the definition and handling of exceptions nicely. See the implementation in Control.Monad.Error (and please, excuse the misleading name for now).

There is an old dispute between C++ programmers on whether exceptions or error return codes are the right way. Also Niklaus Wirth considered exceptions to be the reincarnation of GOTO and thus omitted them in his languages. Haskell solves the problem a diplomatic way: Functions return error codes, but the handling of error codes does not uglify the calling code.

First we implement exception handling for non-monadic functions. Since no IO functions are involved, we still cannot handle exceptional situations induced from outside the world, but we can handle situations where it is unacceptable for the caller to check a priori whether the call can succeed.

data Exceptional e a =
     Success a
   | Exception e
   deriving (Show)

instance Monad (Exceptional e) where
   return              =  Success
   Exception l >>= _   =  Exception l
   Success  r  >>= k   =  k r

throw :: e -> Exceptional e a
throw = Exception

catch :: Exceptional e a -> (e -> Exceptional e a) -> Exceptional e a
catch (Exception  l) h = h l
catch (Success r)    _ = Success r

Now we extend this to monadic functions. This is not restricted to IO, but may be used immediately also for non-deterministic algorithms implemented with the List monad.

newtype ExceptionalT e m a =
   ExceptionalT {runExceptionalT :: m (Exceptional e a)}

instance Monad m => Monad (ExceptionalT e m) where
   return   =  ExceptionalT . return . Success
   m >>= k  =  ExceptionalT $
      runExceptionalT m >>= \ a ->
         case a of
            Exception e -> return (Exception e)
            Success   r -> runExceptionalT (k r)

throwT :: Monad m => e -> ExceptionalT e m a
throwT = ExceptionalT . return . Exception

catchT :: Monad m =>
   ExceptionalT e m a -> (e -> ExceptionalT e m a) -> ExceptionalT e m a
catchT m h = ExceptionalT $
   runExceptionalT m >>= \ a ->
      case a of
         Exception l -> runExceptionalT (h l)
         Success   r -> return (Success r)

bracketT :: Monad m =>
   ExceptionalT e m h ->
   (h -> ExceptionalT e m ()) ->
   (h -> ExceptionalT e m a) ->
   ExceptionalT e m a
bracketT open close body =
   open >>= (\ h ->
      ExceptionalT $
         do a <- runExceptionalT (body h)
            runExceptionalT (close h)
            return a)

Here are some examples for typical IO functions with explicit exceptions.

data IOException =
     DiskFull
   | FileDoesNotExist
   | ReadProtected
   | WriteProtected
   | NoSpaceOnDevice
   deriving (Show, Eq, Enum)

open :: FilePath -> ExceptionalT IOException IO Handle

close :: Handle -> ExceptionalT IOException IO ()

read :: Handle -> ExceptionalT IOException IO String

write :: Handle -> String -> ExceptionalT IOException IO ()

readText :: FilePath -> ExceptionalT IOException IO String
readText fileName =
   bracketT (open fileName) close $ \h ->
      read h

Finally we can escape from the Exception monad if we handle the exceptions completely.

main :: IO ()
main =
   do result <- runExceptionalT (readText "test")
      case result of
         Exception e -> putStrLn ("When reading file 'test' we encountered exception " ++ show e)
         Success x -> putStrLn ("Content of the file 'test'\n" ++ x)

Package explicit-exception

Hackage	http://hackage.haskell.org/package/explicit-exception
Repository	darcs get http://code.haskell.org/explicit-exception/

Processing individual exceptions

So far I used the sum type IOException that subsumes a bunch of exceptions. However, not all of these exceptions can be thrown by all of the IO functions. E.g. a read function cannot throw WriteProtected or NoSpaceOnDevice. Thus when handling exceptions we do not want to handle WriteProtected if we know that it cannot occur in the real world. We like to express this in the type and actually we can express this in the type.

Consider two exceptions: ReadException and WriteException. In order to be able to freely combine these exceptions, we use type classes, since type constraints of two function calls are automatically merged.

import Control.Monad.Exception.Synchronous (ExceptionalT, )

class ThrowsRead  e where throwRead  :: e
class ThrowsWrite e where throwWrite :: e

readFile  :: ThrowsRead  e => FilePath -> ExceptionalT e IO String
writeFile :: ThrowsWrite e => FilePath -> String -> ExceptionalT e IO ()

For example for

copyFile src dst =
    writeFile dst =<< readFile src

the compiler automatically infers

copyFile ::
   (ThrowsWrite e, ThrowsRead e) =>
   FilePath -> FilePath -> ExceptionalT e IO ()

Instead of ExceptionalT you can also use EitherT or ErrorT. It's also simple to add parameters to throwRead and throwWrite, such that you can pass more precise information along with the exception. I just want to keep it simple for now.

With those definitions you can already write a nice library and defer the decision of the particular exception types to the library user. The user might define something like

data ApplicationException =
      ReadException
    | WriteException

instance ThrowsRead ApplicationException where
    throwRead = ReadException

instance ThrowsWrite ApplicationException where
    throwWrite = WriteException

Using ApplicationException however it is cumbersome to handle only ReadException and propagate WriteException. The user might write something like

   case e of
      ReadException -> handleReadException
      WriteException -> throwT throwWrite

in order to handle a ReadException and regenerate a ThrowWrite e => e type variable, instead of the concrete ApplicationException type.

He may choose to switch on multi-parameter type classes and overlapping instances, define an exception type like data EE l and then use the technique from control-monad-exception for exception handling with the ExceptionalT monads.

Now I like to propose a technique for handling a particular set of exceptions in Haskell 98:

data ReadException e =
      ReadException
    | NoReadException e

instance ThrowsRead (ReadException e) where
     throwRead = ReadException

instance ThrowsWrite e => ThrowsWrite (ReadException e) where
     throwWrite = NoReadException throwWrite


data WriteException e =
      WriteException
    | NoWriteException e

instance ThrowsRead e => ThrowsRead (WriteException e) where
     throwRead = NoWriteException throwRead

instance ThrowsWrite (WriteException e) where
     throwWrite = WriteException

Defining exception types as a sum of "this particular exception" and "another exception" lets us compose concrete types that can carry a certain set of exceptions on the fly. This is very similar to switching from particular monads to monad transformers. Thanks to the type class approach the order of composition needs not to be fixed by the throwing function but is determined by the order of catching. We even do not have to fix the nested exception type fully when catching an exception. It is enough to fix the part that is interesting for catch:

import Control.Monad.Exception.Synchronous (Exceptional(Success,Exception))

catchRead :: ReadException e -> Exceptional e String
catchRead ReadException = Success "catched a read exception"
catchRead (NoReadException e) = Exception e

throwReadWrite :: (ThrowsRead e, ThrowsWrite e) => e
throwReadWrite =
    asTypeOf throwRead throwWrite

exampleCatchRead :: (ThrowsWrite e) => Exceptional e String
exampleCatchRead =
    catchRead throwReadWrite

Note how in exampleCatchRead the constraint ThrowsRead is removed from the constraint list of throwReadWrite.

The nasty thing is, that the library has to define Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle n^2} instances for Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle n} exceptions. Even worse, if your application imports package A and package B with their sets of exception types, you have to make the exception types of A instances of the exception classes of B and vice versa, and these are orphan instances. Thus I propose that a library does not export any exception type, but only its exception classes. It can define exception types internally for catching exceptions itself. This way your application would define the exception types for the exceptions it wants to catch and define instances against all exception classes that occur in the called functions.

See also

• Error
• Error vs. Exception
• control-monad-exception (reduces the number of type class instances by some type extensions)